Disjunction versus Communion in Raymond Carvers Short Stories Essay

Disjunction versus Communion in Raymond Carvers Short StoriesRaymond Carver, poet, essayist, and short story writer, was verydifferent from slightly other writers in that he clipped his writing until only theessential remained. Carver not only ac associationd the effect that fictioncould have on readers, he proclaimed that it should affect readers.( Bonetti58) Thus, when Carver writes about intimate relationships, the reader perceivesthe stories as more than entertainment or skillful language the reader relatesto the characters situations and applies the knowledge to their own lives. Itis within this realm of character affirmation that Carver draws a much moreelaborate, and meaningful detail in his short stories. I externalise that Carverscharacters either connect or fail to connect on an intimate, spiritual level.It is this difference in his short stories which either draw the reader into or by from the meaning. These relations make certain writings in Carvers storiesmore intere sting.More directly, it is the colloquy in his later writings, and thedisjunction in his earlier writings, that distinguish the cardinal types of styles.Communion within the characters of Carvers later writings, as in hiscollections in Cathedral, create much more depth and interest in his stories.It is within this scope of communion that Carvers stories seem to become morefulfilling with character affirmation.Communion occurs in Carvers stories when several conditions aresatisfied. The difference in the two criteria communion and disjunction, issimply defined. Communion, n 1. A sharing of thoughts or feelings 2. a Areligious or spiritual fellowship. (Websters, 141) It is a connectionbetween characters which allows them to transcend the ordinary and redefinethemselves. A twinkling in which words, actions, and objects take on exaggeratedsignificance . Carver uses this bond between characters in his later writingsmore directly, such as in his anthology Cathedral. You must first init ializean intimate interaction between two or more characters who can communicate---either verbally or physically. If an individual is salvage projecting his/herpersonality onto another, that individual has not experienced the loss of self-awareness which is necessary for communion. Another important element for thisexperience is touch. The charac... ...ders and move them toaction in their own lives.Works CitedBonetti, Kay. Ray Carver Keeping. Conversations with Raymond Carver.Marshall Bruce Gentry and William L. Stull, eds. Jackson, MississippiUniversity Press of Mississippi, 1990. 53-61.Carver, Raymond. Cathedral. New York Vintage Books, 1989.---. No Heroics Please. New York Vintage Books, 1992.---. What We Talk close When We Talk About Love. New York Vintage Books, 1989.Davis, Alan. The Holiness of Ordinary. Hudson Review. Vol.45 Winter 1993653-658Gardner, John. On Moral Fiction. New York Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1978.Halpert, Sam. Interviews when we talk about Raymon d Carver. PeregrineSmith, Library of intercourse Cataloging-in-publishing, 1991. 51-84Sexton, David. David Sexton talks to Raymond Carver. Conversations WithRaymond Carver. Marshall Bruce Gentry and William L.Stull, eds. Jackson,Mississippi University of Mississippi, 1990. 120-132.Stull, William L. Matters of Life and Death. Conversations with RaymondCarver. Marshall Bruce Gentry and William L. Stull eds. Jackson, MississippiUniversity Press of Mississippi, 1990. 177-191.

School Views :: essays research papers

Students in America need a good education to keep our economy strong, and tame is the best place to invite it. Whether someone attends a private, public, or home school, theyre all going to get an education, and that is what is important.However, thither argon certain factors that can detract from a students ability to key and perform in school.An overemphasis on sports is one of these. I know this is a tired subject and should have been buried long ago, but I cannot swear out but mention it. Some schools have a tendency to play favorites with big sports stars. While everyone sees this as wrong, everyone also does it. Whether or not it is a witting decision is another matter altogether. But it always seems that some students get the short end of the stick in certain areas (schoolwork, disciple, etc.) while others are tending(p) break after lucky break. Do the athletes (or whoever the favored group may be, as is the case) deserve this? By participating in some activity, are the on the spur of the moment more valuable as a person? No.But the fact of the matter is, this has been going on and will likely continue until the abutting Ice Age. The only thing students can do is to try and point out the inequalities and force administrators and teachers to be a little fairer in their application of the school rules.However, this is not the only barrier students must face in their daily struggles to learn. Apathetic students and teachers present a considerable barrier. The only course of action here is to work around the problem students and teachers, and try and learn as much as possible. If a teacher cannot adequately teach their subject, help from other teachers in the same area or other students might be needed. If a teacher refuses to teach their subject, go and talk to your principal. No student should be oblige to try and learn without the guidance of a teacher.But the barrier that takes the proverbial cake is administrators acting like gods upon their hig h thrones and lording their power over students. Students cannot be anticipate to learn where ideas are not freely discussed, nor is freedom of thought allowed.I can recall when a principal at my school once told teachers, "You are not to discuss the Columbine incident AT ALL."Keeping students ignorant and sheltered from the world is a disastrous course of action.

Catalysts In ?A View From The Bridge? And ?The Glass Menagerie? :: essays research papers

Just as in science, a catalyst speeds up the rate of the chemical reception in literature, a catalyst is a person, idea or event that initiates and develops the conflict of the story. In A View from the Bridge and The Glass Menagerie, the catalysts utilise are introduced at different points in the plays and play different roles.In A View from the Bridge, Rodolpho, the catalyst, is introduced in the exposition, and plays a major role in the play. He initiates the conflict by being attracted to Catherine, and by the situation that Catherine is attracted to him as well. The fact that he is introduced in the exposition, allows for the author to develop his character, and thus allows for the audience to experience with him instead of Eddie. This development gives the audience a high quality catalyst as it can relate to Rodplpho. Rodolpho creates a heavy tension in the family, payable to his relationship with Catherine. This tension relates to the plays theme of obsession as it is c aused by Eddies obsession with Catherine. How Rodolpho relates to the main theme and develops the tension make him a quality catalyst.Jim, the catalyst in The Glass Menagerie, is introduced in the complications of the play, and though he initiates the conflict, he does not develop it. This may be due to the fact that he was introduced too late into the play, and because his character was not developed. This underdevelopment of his character produces a lower quality catalyst as the audience cannot relate to Jim, and also because he participates little in the play. The tension created by Jim relates to the theme of betrayal, when he tells Laura that he is engaged after he led her on and kissed her. Jims inefficiency to develop the bandage results in a less dramatic climax in The Glass Menagerie.

Semiotics in Cyberspace :: Communication Internet

Semiotics in CyberspaceWe are seeing bingle of the most(prenominal) historic anyy significant changes in the way we share information. Electronic communication devices have been with us since the beginning of the 20th century. Radio provided ways to share sounds with far people simultaneously. The telephone added the ability to inter-communicate with others. Cinematography captured images and created the illusion of motion. Television added the ability to send sounds and moving images to masses of distant people simultaneously.Computers started out being bend crunching machines. However, as time passed these machines were interconnected and they started to provide yet a nonher medium to make information. First it was only text, then some low resolution artistry and images with limited amount of colors were added. In only a few decades of computer technology development we are already seeing systems that can fork over all possible combinations of electronic media. Presently, co mputers can deliver text (and other machine codes), sounds, graphics, still images and video (another name for television images). You can have all of those varieties of media stored in magnetic and optical devices for archiving or to be used as alternative delivery systems. Also, it is possible to deliver all kinds of computer data and electronic media through your telephone or local area network.Radio and television were initially dependent on the use of magnetic radio waves to deliver messages. These two particular media dramatically extended their reach when cable and satellite technologies emerged. Cable and satellite technologies have been in fact responsible for the development of the model of global information networks.Computers have also played a role in the development of information networks using cable and satellite technologies. The Internet is one of those global information networks. Through this network, computers are currently sending all kinds of electronic media formats to other computers around the world. These computers are interconnected to a network that does not have a beginning or an end. Connections can happen in any direction at any time. Trying to build a interpret of computer locations and possible interconnections among them will only produce something that looks more like a web. Hence the name of one of the most impressive information overlap environments of our days The World Wide Web.The World Wide Web (WWW) provides the ability to combine all kinds of electronic media into one interactive presentation that can be delivered anywhere around the world instantaneously. WWW documents are hypermedia documents.

Birth Defects Essay -- essays research papers fc

Birth defects, or congenitalmalformations, are the faulty formation ofstructures or body parts bow at birth.Sporadic, hereditary, or acquired defects may beimmediately observed or may become manifestlater in life they may be visible on the bodysurface or present internally. Birth defects may belife threatening and require surgical correction, orthey may interfere with function or appearance. Itis estimated that about 3% of all children are bornwith major defects minor defects or variations areestimated to occur in 10% to 15% of births.Malformations may be single or multiple. Multiplemalformations that occur in a regular recognizablepattern are referred to as syndromes--forexample, the fetal ALCOHOL SYNDROMEsometimes observed in infants of mothers whodrank heavily when pregnant. Birth defects mayresult from the action of genes, chromosomes, orthe environment on the developing fetus, but oftentimesthe cause cannot be determined. Inherited DefectsAbnormal genes cause a significant n umber ofdifferent birth defects. Some can be identified as asingle-gene disorder that is inherited in a simpleMendelian mode, that is, either a dominant or arecessive pattern. For example, lobster claw imperfection of the hands and feet (split hands orfeet) is inherited and results from the effect of asingle dominant gene. A person who has thisdeformity runs a 50% risk (1 in 2) of bearingoffspring who will inherit the gene and willtherefore also be affected. Autosomal rece...

Birth Defects Essay -- essays research papers fc

Birth defects, or congenitalmal arrangements, are the faulty formation ofstructures or body parts present at birth.Sporadic, hereditary, or acquired defects may beimmediately observed or may become manifest later(prenominal) in life they may be visible on the bodysurface or present internally. Birth defects may belife impending and require surgical correction, orthey may interfere with function or appearance. Itis estimated that about 3% of all children are bornwith major defects minor defects or variations areestimated to occur in 10% to 15% of births.Malformations may be single or multiple. Multiplemalformations that occur in a regular perceptiblepattern are referred to as syndromes--forexample, the FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROMEsometimes observed in infants of mothers whodrank heavily when pregnant. Birth defects mayresult from the action of genes, chromosomes, orthe milieu on the developing fetus, but oftenthe cause cannot be determined. Inherited DefectsAbnormal genes cause a signif icant number ofdifferent birth defects. nearly can be identified as asingle-gene disorder that is inherited in a simpleMendelian mode, that is, either a dominant or arecessive pattern. For example, lobster claw tarnish of the hands and feet (split hands orfeet) is inherited and results from the effect of asingle dominant gene. A person who has thisdeformity runs a 50% risk (1 in 2) of bearingoffspring who will inherit the gene and willtherefore also be affected. Autosomal rece...

Child soldiers: The role of children in armed conflict Essay

There ar hundreds of thousands of boorren from all over the world who atomic number 18 agonistic and recruited into paramilitaries, civil militia, government arm forces and other armed free radicals. This situation is particularly common in Africa and Arabic countries which atomic number 18 constantly in war. In such countries the rate of insecurity is commonly so high that the children cannot go school and as a result they voluntarily join the militia assemblages since it is the only activity they can actively be involved in. about children are born and they experience the war from tender age, as a result war becomes part of them. In other cases the children are forcefully recruited and trained to be militia men. Thousands of children recruited are abducted from home, streets and schools. Other self recruits do it out of revenge they watched their family members being murdered in cold contrast and others being raped and the anger makes them to join the army and militia gro up t seek revenge for their loved ones(Wessells, 456).In the international law, the involvement and fellowship of children under eighteen years old in an armed conflict is totally unacceptable and prohibited. At the same time the recruitment of those under 15 is regarded as a war crime. Such children have their child hood robbed of and they are exposed to physical and psychological suffering and terrible danger. They are a gr cancel out deal placed in the combat situation used as messengers, spies, porters, servants to clear and lay the landmines. This is usually dangerous to their lives as in most cases they are usually incompetent and highly di tragicomicvantaged compared to the other experienced trained older soldiers. During confrontation they are in most cases put in the front assembly line and they end up being killed the most. The girls in such cases are usually subject to sexual child abuse and rape (Shepler, 165).The war and militia group encounter usually has adverse p sychological impacts on the children. They witness and participate in a lot of killings and other inhuman acts which affect their psychological well(p) being. Others run into depression and post traumatic stress because of being exposed to too much human blood. They usually specify it hard to erase the sad and inhuman moments from their minds. They witness their colleagues being murdered in the war and they also killed people and these scenes keep flushing in their mind. If such victims dont find imperative medical and professional befriend they die from stress and depression related ailments. Others end up committing suicide because of the traumatizing encounters and experiences (Klasen et al, 345).In Somalia for example the children have been denied the access to education. The children are exposed to high level of poverty they are forced to join the militia group so that they can protect themselves. The al-Shabab have denied access to incite thus enhancing the humanitarian c risis. The education has been paralyzed in the country because schools are destroyed in the wars and others are used as hide outs and training nation for the militia men. The children and teachers cant risk going to school because they might be abducted or killed. This situation has caused thousands of children to flee in the neighboring countries such as capital of Djibouti and Kenya as refugees where they face hard living conditions in the camps. The Al-Shabab armed group has imposed restrictions on the freedom and right to education. They prevent some subjects from being taught in school and they use the operating schools to indoctrinate children into taking part in the wars and fighting. The armed group use threatening recruitment methods and in some cases they hooking the children promising them money and phones if they join them (kohrt et al, 188). electric shaverren are used as soldiers they are easier to brainwash and condition. They are easily manipulated and convinced as opposed to the elderly people. They eat less food and they are underpaid. They have underdeveloped sense of danger and as a result they are easier to command In the line of fire. The children are also uniquely vulnerable to recruitment because of their physical and emotional immaturity. They are easily drawn and convinced into violence and wars that they are too young to take in and resist. The recruited children usually find it hard to go back home to their communities and families as they are ostracized from them. They are usually forced to kill a neighbor or family member so that they cant go back home. For the female child soldiers, many have babies with the rebel soldiers and such children cant be accepted in their homes making it difficult for them to return home (Achvarina, 132).Since 2001 child soldiers participation in militia activities has been reported in twenty one late(a) or ongoing armed conflicts in different regions of the world. The advancement in technology in t he proliferation of small arms and weaponry has also contributed a striking deal to the increased recruitment of child soldiers. The lightweight automatic guns and other weapons are simple and easy to operate, they are easily accessible and they can be used by the children. The guns are more portable and easy to use this provision makes it possible for children to be recruited in the armed activities (Rosen, 345).The children are also more likely to be recruited because of the separation from their families, high poverty levels displacement from homes, having limited access to education or living in a combat zone. Some children have parents who are both soldiers and they are born in the war area. Such children are almost naturally recruited as they dont find it hard joining and participating in the war. Many children join the militia groups because of social and economic pressure that they are exposed to. others believe that the armed group provide offer security and food. In som e countries like Uganda, Sri Lanka and Nepal more of the child soldiers are reported to be girls. They are often raped and forced to be wives of the elderly soldiers. This is inhuman as it prevents the girl child from getting her rights and freedoms (Honwana, 287).The former child soldiers should have adequate access to rehabilitation programs which will help them relocate back to their families or get back to school. They should not be treated as outcasts but instead they should receive vocational training in order to have an easy time re entering the civilian life. If the children lack this support they can easily be recruited back to the armed groups because they will find it hard to cope up and blend in the normal society after their extreme experiences with the guns. It is the responsibility of every government to ensure that children arctic and rights are safeguarded. The governments should protect all children from being recruited in the militia activities. They should prohi bit forced recruitment of children of children under eighteen years old (Bayer et al, 254).ReferencesCohn, Ilene, and Guy S. Goodwin-Gill. Child soldiers The role of children in armed conflict. Oxford Clarendon Press, 2004.Wessells, Michael G. Child soldiers From violence to protection. Harvard University Press, 2006.Honwana, Alcinda. Child soldiers in Africa. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.Rosen, David M. Armies of the young Child soldiers in war and terrorism. Rutgers University Press, 2005.Kohrt, Brandon A., et al. Comparison of mental health between former child soldiers and children never conscripted by armed groups in Nepal. Jama 300.6 (2008) 691-702.Bayer, Christophe Pierre, Fionna Klasen, and Hubertus Adam. Association of trauma and PTSD symptoms with openness to reconciliation and feelings of revenge among former Ugandan and Congolese child soldiers. Jama 298.5 (2007) 555-559.Klasen, Fionna, et al. Posttraumatic resilience in former Ugandan child soldiers. Child de velopment 81.4 (2010) 1096-1113.Rosen, David M. Child soldiers, international humanitarian law, and the globalization of childhood. American anthropologist 109.2 (2007) 296-306.Shepler, Susan. The rites of the child Global discourses of youth and reintegrating child soldiers in Sierra Leone. Journal of Human Rights 4.2 (2005) 197-211.Achvarina, Vera, and Simon F. Reich. No Place to Hide Refugees, displaced persons, and the recruitment of child soldiers. International Security 31.1 (2006) 127-164. reference document

Mexican War and the Austrian Succession War

The two commonwealths that wrestled in the Mexican War were both ill prepared and unequipped to fight. The unite States, whose population largely did non expect a war with the Mexicans just about immediately following the independence agitate in Texas, natur every last(predicate)y did not arm its soldiers. Though Congress voted to declare war in an overwhelming majority, it did not readily act to enlarge the army or navy until subsequently the declaration. Indeed, there were less than 10,000 force on any of the few expeditions launched by the government in Mexican territory.If the United States was not prepared for a struggle with the Mexicans, the latter was less than suited for the conflict. At the time, Mexico was languishing under the on-again, off-again rule by the war hero and tyrant Santa Anna. He had fought against the Texans, lost and was ejected by an angry mob, difference still a general or another to stand in his place. When the latter became unpopular, Santa An na would return and rule Mexico anew. Prior to the Mexican War, the dictator was again toppled by mutinous soldiers, a General Paredes, and his own capital, Mexico City. When the Mexican government did declare war against the United States, several factions throughout the country declared themselves against the government. In the thick of this, Santa Anna was called in again to take the reins.Thus it was that the Mexican War utilized a small number of promenade, and its subsequent major engagements involved less than 5,000 troops at any whiz time. The objectives of the Americans, at the outbreak of the War had been to force the annexation of California and resolve the border dispute between it and Mexico. These were the initial goals, and it was only out of sheer paralysis in Mexican politics that the war was dragged on and led to the long American march to Mexico.This was not at all different from any of the wars fought among the major powers of the 17th and 18th carbon for dyna stic succession, particularly the Austrian duration. In idea it was the challenge of the succession of Maria Theresa as Empress of Austria. In practice, it was primarily the Prussian goal of seizing the Austrian province of Silesia. Dynastic wars like this were limited to regions of conflict, and were soon ended once an army of one power had been decisively defeated, or had reached their objectives. Oftentimes, allies would agree to a separate peace with their enemies, and the war would only be prosecuted to its totality if the sovereignty of one nation were endangered.At the outbreak of war the Mexicans had 20,000 men on the roles, and 24,000 officers. Most were not even prepared to go to war, and were hundreds of miles away from the fighting. The subsequent American punitive expeditions in California were reminiscent of the engagements between Prussia and Austria during the Austrian Succession. Much of the initial fighting in that war occurred in Silesia, and gradually spread, b arely was mostly limited to the grey German territories.The fighting in California was mostly between armies in the mere hundreds the decisive battles of Rio San Gabriel, and La Mesa were fought off between Americans in the hundreds and aborigine Californians with less than that number. In the former, the Californian artillery failed them, and in the latter the Californians had mere cavalry lancers to the American rifles.The fighting, meanwhile, in Northeastern Mexico, and on the road to Mexico itself, was harder fought. Zachary Taylor fought a hard-fought, impasse in the urban center of Monterrey, where the able Mexican commander General Pedro de Ampudia held off 2,638 American troops to his 3,140, for two days with great losses. Eventually the fighting degenerated to the city streets, and Taylor, rather than suck to go through the effort of a protracted battle against the enemy, agreed to an armistice with the Mexicans. The general soon broke this agreement, and resumed the m arch to Mexico.The uncontrolled demoralization of Mexico made the American electioneering easier, as the Mexican military command was disjointed, and divided. Like Maria Theresa going off herself into the field of battle, Santa Anna, after being forced out of exile by his government, promptly took its reins, levied 16,000 troops by sheer will, and marched off to meet Taylor himself in Buenavista. When General Taylor finally faced the Mexican army, in the Battle of Buena Vista, 4,000 of Santa Annas troops had died of hunger, disease and desertion.They were exhausted when they faced the enemy. Nevertheless, through the discipline of the ranks, the Mexican forces had at one point outflanked and near to routing the enemy, but for the timely reprieve of American artillery that drove the Mexican chargers off. Defeated, Santa Anna was forced to march humiliatingly all the way back to Mexico City.These were the only major battles in the war that involved armies of thousands, and they wer e concentrated on the cities and employed siege warfare. The battles that were fought before that time were greatly smaller in scale as to the battles fought between the Austrians and the Prussians in Silesia, or the Austrians against the Prussian ally in Bavaria. Like the Austrian Succession War, however, these Mexican-American engagements involved sweeping cavalry attacks. The necessity of battle would compare Santa Anna with the despairing sprite of Austria, but the tactics he wielded were reminiscent of the Prussian Frederick.California having been occupied by the Americans, and Santa Anna having been defeated, the Americans would have assumed the Mexicans would sue for peace. Indeed, Mexico fragmented yet again upon news show of the defeat. However, like Maria Theresa before him, who faced the Prussians alone and with no European ally left-hand(a) both during and after the First Silesian War (which was part of the Succession War), Santa Anna and his government refused to mak e peace, forcing the sending of another American expedition this time to force peace upon the capital.This was the army of General Winfield Scott, opening the campaign by an challenging amphibious assault on the city of Vera Cruz. Following the citys surrender after a violent trade-off of artillery fire, Scott marched off to Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna with a force of 12,000 men prepared to cakehole them. A forward regiment of the American commander discovered the hidden location, and Scott moved away from the line of ambush and outflanked the enemy, killing 1000 to 3000.The dynastic, limited wars of Europe were prone to disunity in command. France and Prussia had been united in an alliance against Austria, in the second phase of the war when Prussian troops had been used to siphon off the Austrian invasion in France, the latter countrys army refused to aid their allies. So, too, in the course of the American campaign leading to the capture of Mexico City, General Gabriel Valenci a, who held numerical superiority over the Americans, was ordered to withdraw just as the Battle in Contreras was already set. Santa Anna promptly left the general and his army to be sizably crushed by the Americans. The subsequent battle of Chapultepec where a greatly outnumbered enemy force was abandoned by Santa Anna.Finally, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded almost half of Mexico to the Americans. Like Austria acceding to the Silesian loss, Mexico resigned to the loss of Texas. Unlike the Austrian War, however, they also lost the California territory, as well as land that would comprise New Mexico. It was a limited, set-piece campaign by the Americans, though it was not the first in the latters history. The lack of discipline and unity of command of the armies of 17th and 18th century Europe haunted the Mexican army Santa Anna acted more of a mercenary than a general.Had he prosecuted the war more competently, he would at least have forced better concessions from the America ns, for at the time of Buena Vista, most of California had already been lost. The Mexican general could at least have fought battles that would have shaped the price on the bargaining table. As it was, brilliant though he might have been, Santa Anna lacked the fiber of integrity that Maria Theresa had.References Ritchie, D. A. & Altoff A. & Wilson, Dr. R. (1985). Heritage of Freedom History of the United States. New York MacMillan Publishing Company.Simpson, L.B. (1966). Many Mexicos. Berkeley and Los Angeles University of California Press.Durant, W. (1965). The Age of Voltaire. New York Mahony & Roese.Mexican-American War. (n.d.) Retrieved April 9, 2008 from Wikipedia. http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican-American_War.

Mannerist Portraits of the 16th Century

The sixteenth century was a period of intense political and military. The 1500s were also a period of religious change. The Italian painter Parmigianino was a groundbreaker of the mannerist style, which his work shows an essentially decorative emphasis and accomplished smoothness. They had a nickname for Parmigianino which was little man from Parma. At the age of 19 Parmigianino was commission to frescoes for the Parma Cathedral. Now the paint that Ive chose from the Mannerist portraits of the 16th is Parmigianinos Madonna and child with Angels, which is also Madonna of the Long Neck.Now the reason they call it Madonna of the long Neck is because how long her recognise is in the photograph. The Madonna, in particular, has an elongated neck and tilt head. Her movement flows into the spatial twist of the torso and legs, Mary dress, in contrast to the usual blue and red. Parmigianinos painting exemplifies the elongation that the Mannerists gave their figures. They made the stretchin g the human body in some ways the Mannerist artists seemed to be ahead of everyone else. This is one of the most popular subjects in Christian art.It has been painted by hundreds of painters over the centuries to be placed in a church or chapel as an altarpiece. Some of the effects that argon in the picture is the faces are more realistic and not idealized. The baby Jesus is less of a small man and more bid a child. An attempt at creating depth has been attempted to place two background angels and through the use of linear perspective in the throne. Modeling is clearly indubitable as the light source is coming from the left of the painting.Madonna drapery has larger and more naturalistic folds that shape her body. The way Madonna regard had her head tilted and how her hand was on her chest in the picture was like she was in the royal family or had royal blood, and how the mannerism had a different style of painting the baby was bigger than the normal size baby. In the picture is see five angels looking at Madonna and the baby. They use Oil on panel, and if you feed attention to the floor there is a little man looking away from a scroll.As you can see that the painting is taking place in a room, but in the background you can see a background of outside, and they used like a brownish colors to make it look like the sun is going down or coming up. If you look at Madonna and the angels cheeks, they have all have red blush on their cheeks. If you look close you can see that Madonnas stomach is sticking out a little because the scene of the painting makes it look like she just had a baby.

Vocabulary

3 Developing phrase in Second Language science From Theories to the Classroom Jeff G. Mehring Abstract This paper examines the theories behind lexicon acquisition in second language takeing in order to purge these theories into practice in a class. Learning lexicon is an current process which requires domineering repetition to admirer savants learn, especially low place setting verbiage. Students can retain the vocabulary they find intentful and relevant to their subject matter by erudition vocabulary through context, cooperative learning, and using technology.Results from an action research project will be reported. Introduction Until recently vocabulary had been widely over thinked in the ESL/EFL classroom. Maiguashca (1993) stated that inculcateing or studying grammar is based on a set of rules with a coherent structure which students follow or remember, plainly the like is non true of vocabulary (p. 91). Within the live few long time, vocabulary has become viewed as an important aspect in second language learning, in fact, many believe just as important as the main skills of reading, writing, dispositi unityning, and speaking.landed estate (as cited in kingdom and Waring, 1997) explained, mental lexicon knowledge en equals language use, language use enables the subjoin of vocabulary knowledge, knowledge of the world enables the incr stand-in of vocabulary knowledge and language use and so on (p. 6). This contextualized approach to learning vocabulary will help students increase their vocabulary though au thereforetic interaction. In this paper, I will examine the theories behind vocabulary acquisition and some results when they were put into practice during my student t distributivelying. Theoretical ConceptsBuilding vocabulary is extremely important for success in undergraduate or graduate studies. Nation and Waring (1997) reported that 5-year-old native English speakers lineage work will get down a vocabulary of around 4,000 to 5,000 playscript families, adding roughly 1,000 explicate families a year until graduating from university with a vocabulary of around 20,000 battle cry families (p. 7). Bauer and Nation (as cited in Nation and Waring) defined a leger family as the base discussion, its inflected forms, and a small number of regular derived forms (p. 7).This means that students such as those in the English Foundations Program (EFP) at Hawaii Pacific University (HPU) prolong an enormous challenge ahead of them, considering that their previous schooling was in their L1, not English. If superstar uses Nation and Warings statement that native speakers hold a vocabulary of around 20,000 word families at the time of university graduation, non-native speakers, before finishing EFP 1310, an go-level class in the EFP, and entering the undergraduate program, would have to increase their vocabulary from between 5,000 to 15,000 word families, depending on their previous English language studies.The g ood news is that according to Jamieson (as cited in Nation and Waring), once ESL students enter a school where English is the primary language, their vocabulary grows at the similar rate as native speakers, around 1,000 word families a year however, the initial gap never closes (p. 7). Understanding where ESL students are starting from will help in providing the vocabulary penuryed in order for them to improve and catch up. Learning vocabulary is an ongoing process that takes time and practice. Nakata (2006) acknowledged that vocabulary acquisition requires continual repetition in order for powerful vocabulary learning (p. 9). verbiage acquisition is not something a student can spend time learning or memorizing, like grammar, and be successful. Acquisition requires the apprentice to be disciplined, spending time each day working on oral communication he/she does not know in order for 4 learners to remember high frequency linguistic communication and put them into their long t erm memory, Nation and Waring stated that learners need to encounter the word multiple times in authentic speaking, reading, and writing context at the students appropriate level (p. 8).Developing lessons which allow the student to encounter new row multiple times, allowing them to put the new words into his/her long term memory can be time consuming. Developing word lists from the context of the lesson can reduce the work load, alter the student to encounter the word multiple times through reading, listening, and speaking. Learning new vocabulary through context also helps the student understand the words correct usage and prevents students from making sentences from dictionary definition such as, There is a greathearted cleavage between the rich and poor in America.Learning new words from a word list is much different from learning them in the context of a sentence or story. Yongqi Gu (2003) stated that learning new words through context is notwithstanding one step students ma y use, and that students should think meta-cognitively and learn new words within the context of where they appear. (p. 14). To help the student learn the important words from the context of a lesson a teacher needs to focus on low context words, which necessitates a second distinction high frequency and low frequency words.Nation (2005) defined high frequency words as words that occur quite a great deal in the language, such as the, a, man, and woman. High frequency words occur so regularly in daily conversation that if students understand these words, they are able to release and speak in comprehensible English. Low frequency words, as described by Nation, are words that deal more with academic studies, words that appear throughout all academic texts and courses, but not very often in day to day speech, such as formulate, index, and modify (p. 48).This helps ease the burden a teacher has when trying to understand what words students understand however, low frequency words are th e more baffling aspect for teachers to teach and learners to understand. Creating vocabulary lists from the students textbooks and presenting these words through context in the lesson should help them to retain and use the new vocabulary. It will also carry through that students learn vocabulary bring out when they find the items to be useful and are able to put the new words into use more often while they study.Vocabulary, like separate aspects of language learning, can be facilitated when done through cooperative learning. Yongqi Gu (2003) percentage pointed out that vocabulary acquisition is a very learner-centered activity with the effectiveness of the learners strategies depending on his/her attitude and motivation towards new vocabulary acquisition (p. 2). This is true because the main motivational learning factor must come from the student, but when learning vocabulary in a cooperative learning environment it allows students to learn from peers closest to them.Murphey and Arao (2001) pointed out that students felt more relaxed and acquire more from peers since they see that making mistakes is acceptable, having goals is good, and learning English can be fun (p. 2). So, even though vocabulary acquisition is a learner-centered activity in regards to studying and be disciplined to set goals, when done in collaboration with peers students may enjoy the activity more, learning more vocabulary in the end.Understanding that vocabulary learning is an ongoing process, that learning new vocabulary through context, and learning new vocabulary can be done cooperatively are what guided the classroom practices below. Vocabulary Development in Classroom Practices Context The course in which vocabulary development in line with the above theoretical concepts was implemented was EFP 1310 College Listening Skills, an advanced course in listening and note-taking. It stressed comprehension of classroom discussions and lashs, as well as a variety of other(a) media p resentations.The class was taught by cardinal instructors Dr. Hanh Nguyen as the lead teacher and myself as a student teacher. Together we worked to develop the students vocabulary in class. In this class there were 5 xviii students, eleven fe staminates and seven males. Of the eleven females, seven were Taiwanese, one Belarusian, one Japanese, one Chinese, and one Indonesian. Of the seven males, triplet were Korean, two Japanese, one Taiwanese, and one Serbian. One male student was repeating this class for the second time.For two of the males and deuce-ace of the females, this was their first off English language class at a university. The average number of years spent studying English in the students home country was 6. 2 years and in the US, just over one month. explained that turn up Your Word Level is adapted for the web from Paul Nation and Batia Laufers word levels tests, developed for learners with vocabularies of different sizes and types, with the 1,000 to 10,000 mos t frequent English words (p. 2). At the 1,000 word level, the items are multiplechoice and based on either pictures or short sentences.Learners check their answers and move on to a second test at a higher(prenominal) level, (80% or higher to move up), or moved down to a lower level, depending on their score. Assessing the students vocabulary level in the beginning of the semester was needed to set a starting point. It also helped students understand where they were and where they needed to go in order to do well in undergraduate studies. in all of the students assessed in the EFP 1310 class scored in the 2,000 level except three students who were assessed at the 3,000 level.This means that their vocabulary level was between 2,000 and 5,000 word families, whereas their native-speaking counterparts would have around 15,000 word families. The second activity required students to learn three new words each week. The first time this class was taught each week students were required to w rite three new words in a journal along with a definition for each word and three example sentences using the word in context. They could pick these words from three sources the next level up from the website where they had their level assessed, words from their textbook, and words from the AWL provided by the teacher.The website informed the students at what level they were assessed then the students picked words from the level above that, studied them, and hopefully did better on the exam at the end of the semester. For example, students who were assessed at the 2,000 level would then study words from the 3,000 level to improve their vocabulary. If they did not want to do this, they could choose vocabulary words from the new vocabulary section listed at the beginning of each chapter of the textbook.Their last choice, if they did not wish to do the other two, was the AWL provided by the teachers. This list was prepared by examining the lectures in the text- Vocabulary Development A ctivities As mentioned earlier, Nation and Waring stated that learners need to encounter a word numerous times in order to use it properly. Building vocabulary is an ongoing process, and I believe good march on was made during the semester. The biggest obstacles encountered were the limited time and the number of words students had to learn in order to be well-prepared for undergraduate studies.Students now understood the importance of a large vocabulary and the amount of work they needed to put forth in obtaining it. In order to build the students vocabulary, and help close the vocabulary gap as much as viable, we carried out the following steps (a) Students assessed their present vocabulary level, a starting point had to be determined so progresses could be assessed, (b) students learned three new words each week, getting the students remindd and changing their attitude on learning vocabulary, (c) the teachers created an academic word list (AWL) xtracted from the lectures and t he textbook, developing vocabulary that the students would learn in the context of the lectures and use in the class discussions that followed, and (d) the students assessed their vocabulary at the end of the semester to see if they made any progress. To see their progress would motivate the students to continue the learning process. To begin with, the students needed to assess their present vocabulary level. To do this, students visited http//www. lex drill. a and took a vocabulary test to determine their present level. Sevier (2004) 6 book, pulling out the academic words, and putting them on a piece of paper to be given to the students. Some of the words on this list were the same as the words from the new vocabulary section of the textbook. Getting the students to learn three new words each week posed the most difficult task. Students did not have these lists checked every week, but at the mid-term and final exams, so a few students quickly created these books just before this ti me period.At first it was devisened to have each student post his/her three new words on WebCT so they could be checked more regularly and other classmates could learn from other students words. After this curriculum was put to a vote in class, the students decided to place their vocabulary words in a notebook and turn the notebook in before the mid-term and final exams. Learning from mistakes, we feel that it would have been better to check their vocabulary notebooks weekly, or have students post their new words on WebCT to help them acquire more low-context vocabulary, thus creating an even better activity for the class.To overcome these weaknesses, when I had the opportunity to teach the class once again in the following semester (now as the sole teacher), students were required to post their three new words on WebCT instead of in a journal. They could choose the words from the same areas described above, but each week instead of writing them in a journal they needed to post t hem on WebCT for the teacher and classmates to see. The first cause was because the previous semester some students did not keep their journal regularly, that making the journal the day before it was due.The second reason was so classmates could learn from each other, near peer role modeling, and the teacher could use the words students were posting as part of the vocabulary section of the test. Students seemed to have taken a stronger interest in learning new vocabulary by transferring words they need to learn into a vocabulary journal or flash cards to help them study. Whether this process is successful or not will be seen at the end of the semester when the students take the vocabulary exam again to see their progress. The third activity was to provide lists of words for the AWL that appeared in the lectures in the textbook.Since EFP 1310 is an advanced course in the EFP program, and after this course most students enter undergraduate studies, the AWL is the appropriate list fo r this class. If it were a lower level class, lower levels of vocabulary would have been used. By pulling out the contextualized vocabulary from each lesson, we were hoping not only to increase the students vocabulary but also make the lectures more comprehensible. I helped with scanning and running each lecture through hustle a software program developed by Nation (2005).This program allowed me to create a contextualized AWL specifically for our class, focusing on the vocabulary from the given lectures. Nation and Waring (1997) developed three levels of vocabulary lists level 1 is the first 1,000 word families, level 2 is the second 1,000 word families, and level 3 is the university word list (UWL) or AWL (p. 14). RANGE is used to create word lists based on frequency and is useful for seeing what low frequency words are contained in a paper, technical information note, or a text aimed at foreign readers.It creates three ready-made base lists. Figure 1 shows an example of a lecture that was run through RANGE. The first includes the most frequent 1,000 words of English. The second includes the next 1,000 most frequent words, and the third includes words not in the first 2,000 words of English but which are frequent in upper secondary school and university texts from a wide range of subjects. All three base lists include the base forms of words and derived forms thus, the first 1,000 words consist of around 4,000 forms or types. 7 Figure 1.An example of RANGE analysis production (see the Appendix for the sample text of this analysis) Tables Table 1 Three Base Lists Created from RANGE Software Program Types found in base list one Type a all also and bank business employees Range 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Freq 9 2 1 3 2 13 2 F1 9 2 1 3 2 13 2 Types found in base list two Type competition critical hurt lot rush Range 1 1 1 1 1 Freq 1 1 1 3 1 F1 1 1 1 3 1 Types found in base list three Type affect community factors financing check obtain project range require Range 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Freq 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 F1 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 11 After scanning each lecture and running it through the program, we pulled out only the level 3 words, the AWL, and put them into a word document. Before each lecture, the teacher printed out the appropriate AWL and gave it to the students to prepare them for the lecture. This practice was inspired by the persuasion that new words are best learned in context, or as Sternberg claimed, Vocabulary using context is the most effective, or even a relatively effective, way of teaching that vocabulary (p. 89).Since students had the chance to study and understand the vocabulary before listening to the lecture, we aimed to help them to concentrate on the content of the lecture and hear the vocabulary being used in context. Extracting the high context vocabulary from the lectures was a great way to focus on the content words from the lessons so students would be using them regularly in class, hopefully committing them to long term memory. It also saved the teachers a lot of time by not having to read the lectures and pull the vocabulary out. This allowed more time to focus on presentation of the lessons and vocabulary.The final activity took place at the end of the semester when students revisited the website, http//www. lextutor. ca, and had their vocabulary assessed a second time to see if it had grown. All of the students scored at the same level from the beginning of the semester, except one student who scored higher. The use of the same exam at the end of the semester gave validity to their scores since the level of the test did not change. Even though most students scored at the same level in the end, I do not believe that the vocabulary learning activities done in class failed.One level contains roughly 4,000 word forms and types, so a student may have tested into the lower end of level 2,000 at the beginning of the semester, and tested at the same level but toward the higher end at the closedown of the semeste r. Since the test does not show this in more detail, it is difficult to know if the students have or have not made some progress. Conclusion Vocabulary acquisition has become an extremely important part of second language acquisition, and teachers cannot rely on students acquiring the needed vocabulary just through interaction with the language.I always understood that vocabulary was important in second language learning, but understanding what words to teach and in what manner have helped me to better plan my lessons so students can acquire the necessary vocabulary. Students need to be taught vocabulary in context so that they can retain the words and use them more frequently. Learning how the computer can help to develop word lists from the students textbooks has enabled me to focus on the words that were necessary in each lesson. Allowing the students to use the new vocabulary during the course of the lesson should help them retain it in their long term memories.Using a computer program to assess the students present vocabulary level also helped me to see what words needed to be taught to help students progress or catch up. In the end, however vocabulary is presented to the students, like all materials, it must be in appropriate situations, giving them the chance to use the vocabulary and build upon their language repertoire. 9 References Cobb, T. (1999). The compleat lexical tutor (Version 4. 5) Computer software. University of Quebec at Montreal. Maiguashca, R. U. (1993). Teaching and learning vocabulary in a second language Past, present and future directions.The Canadian Modern Language Review, 50(1), 83-100. Murphey, T. , & Arao, H. (2001). Reported whimsey changes through near peer role modeling. TESL-EJ, 5(3). Retrieved June 1, 2006, from http//wwwwriting. berkeley. edu/TESLEJ/ej19/a1. html Nakata, T. (2006). Implementing optimal spaced learning for English vocabulary learning Towards improvement of the low-first method derived from the reactivation theory. The JALT CALL Journal, 2(2), 3-18. Nation, P. , & Waring, R. (1997). Vocabulary size, text coverage and word lists. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds. , Vocabulary Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 6-19). Cambridge, UK Cambridge University Press. Retrieved March 3, 2006, from http// www1. harenet. ne. jp/waring/papers/ cup. html Nation, P. (2005). Range and frequency instructions Computer software. Retrieved March 3, 2006, from http//www. vuw. ac. nz/lals/stave/paul -nation/nation. aspx Nation, P. (2005). Teaching vocabulary. Asian EFL Journal, 7(3), 47-54. Sevier, M. (2004). The compleat lexical tutor, v. 4. TESL-EJ, 8(3). Retrieved May 26, 2006, from http//wwwwriting. berkeley. edu/TESLEJ/ej31/m2. tml Sternberg, R. J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from content. In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds. ), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89105). Hillsdale, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum. Yongqi Gu, P. (2003). Vocabulary learning in second language Person, task, con text and strategies. TESL-EJ, 7(2). Retrieved October 3, 2006, from http//www-writing. berkeley. edu/ TESL-EJ/ej26/a4. html 10 Appendix Sample text for RANGE analysis example Starting Your Own condescension When starting your own business, it is important that you put a lot of theme into what you are going to do. 0-85% of all business will fail, so the first point is to start with something you know well. Study what the kind of store you want to open. If it is a retail store, then look around. Do you see someone else exchange what you plan to sell? How many possible competitors do you see? The next step to plan There are two reasons for business planning. One is that it makes the entrepreneur investigate where he will open his business and what factors could affect his business. Second, a business plan will also help the entrepreneur obtain financing from a bank.All banks will require a business to make sure enough thought and planning have gone into the project before the banks gives any money. flavour at the first point By looking at your possible market from a business persons point of view, you may look with a more critical eye. You dont want to rush into something where you could lose a lot of money. Possible factors that could affect your business range from employees, to possible growth of the community, to your competition.If there are not a lot of people living around your business, where will your employees come from? Is the community going to grow where you plan to open your business or is it shrinking? If it is shrinking will that hurt your business? The second point is more for the bank. They like to see that you have thought through many of the possibilities that could affect your business. They want to see that you know what your expenses will be, how well you know your product, and how much money you think you can make selling your product. (Prepared by Jeff G. Mehring, 2005)

Fireweed is written by Skye Brannon Essay

The short story Fireweed is written by Skye Brannon, it is a story close to a young man named Baluta. He emigrated from West Africa to US, with his brother Jato and his sitster in law Sama. The story is to the highest degree how an ordinary workday can trigger memories from the historic. In the germ his memories are filled with happiness, because it is ab forth his family back in Liberia. But as the story evolves, his memories, which he desperately ties to forget presents them selves.The main character, Baluta immigrated to US about 1980-1990s because of the civil war in Liberia. In the short story it is written that The war will be coming our way soon. It was the first magazine Baluta saw fear behind his fathers strong eyes. This may be the reason why Baluta left Africa and immigrated to US. Baluta and jota is not very articulate. And their puzzle with the English language is portrayed by the author substituting a normal English vocabulary and choose to write sentences frenetic ally, for instance Dese Americans, Joto said, if you tell demy out Mandika name, dey look like you give way given dem a riddleThough the characters may have more or less problems with the language, it is not said directly that they are stupid. what is more is seems that Baluta is a very thoughtful young man, who pays attention to the people around him. He is keen to make the people around him feel good in his comp either, and he finds it sad when he is incapable of making life easier for others. He feels very sad that he need to use the car, to get to work, because then his family have to get up early to cheat the buss to work. And another example is that he makes sure that the people he works with doesnt have any problems pronouncing his name and therefore chooses to take the name Joel. He is very kind to other people, even though he had a very hard childhood in Liberia.He was an eyewitness to the murder of his family and unfortunately the memory of this still haunts him. His bad childhood, have made him in to a very sensitive person. up to now though he has immigrated to US to get a better life, he stills live in a ghetto1 which is seen in 8th sentence in the beginning of the text Baluta washed in the shower, cold after his brother and sister-in-law had had theirs this quotation shows how poor they are, because they dont have enough hot water for lead people to shower in the morning. But not only the problem with the hot water shows how poor they are, the car Baluta use to go to work any day is in such bad condition that Jota refers to it as the Swiss Chevy like the Swiss cheese. And the attempts of the duct-tape patchwork and the whistling sound the car makes at speed, clarifies the state of it.The short story follows a chronological storyline, with some flashbacks. It all starts with Baluta thinking of his little sister Alanso. His memory of her is loving and happy like her ego when she was alive. Which is mentioned in the text It was Alansos lau gh, flowing like doves out of her bright smiling mouth. It was Alansos laugh, out from between those cheeks caught the sun and held it in a warm up glow the rest of the day. After having the first flashback, his day carries on as normal.On his way to work, he passes a lot of golf resorts and drives pipe bowl a big gate, this gate can symbolize a gate back in time, to his time in Liberia, because on the other ramp of the gate he gets a another flashback. The neighborhood he drives in reminds him of his father and the monkeys he used to train. Another flashback comes to him as he sees Tiffanys diamond ring reflects the sunlight into his face. He can hear his father telling him they found some diamonds in their mountain. He returns to his work, just to be reminded of his past ones again. Just by hearing the word Fireweed, he is drawn back to the time where he lost his family or some of it. He relives it all, and are ones again forced to stand face to face with death and loss.Ther e are many themes in this short story, but some of the main themes are loss, he looses his family or some of it, which he are guessing to forget, the proverb, Wherever you go, your problems will follow you, even though you try to run or somehow try to get away from your problems they will follow you until you deal with them. This seems to underline theme here. Another theme is immigration. Some people flee from their homes, go get to some kind of safety. This short story is able to twists our reality, and puts in an immigrants shoes.This short story makes us think about life and death, and how easy it is to loss someone you applaud and are force to leave everything to get to safety.

Berlin Conference Essay

The Berlin Conference is a concourse that was held in Berlin in an effort to achieve and agreement among European nations regarding the distribution of goods and free make out in Central African Territories. The Berlin Conference had the greatest governmental imperial bushel during the 19th centuries because the conference was where all of the European countries decide which pieces of Africa each European nation would get and this resulted in many new changes for Africa both verificatory and negative.The Berlin Conference had a political impact on the division of Africa by the European nations. One of the main goals of the Berlin Conference was to secure free mess in the Congo Region.(Finkelman, 1998). During the conference no African representatives were invited. Africans were considered to be uncivilized, so they were not included. Thinking that Belgium would be easier to influence than the more powerful Great Britain, France, or Portugal, Bismarck backed up IACs (Internati onal Association of the Congo). (Stock, 2013) other countries eventually came to an understanding and the IAC got control of many miles of land of the Congo River Basin. The General Act, which was signed at the Berlin Conference, which secured access to the Niger and Congo rivers for all nations. The priming of the General Act had the intentions to abolish the slave trade and insure Africas native population kept their morals (Leopold II, 1890) and comfort along with health, which was an extremely positive intention.Other consequences from the Berlin Conference were the economic impact over the division of Africa. Even though the Berlin Act was greatly concerned with free trade, mainly in pot likker between the European Nations, it is generally recognized as the first time the European nations formally recognized any sort of duty to Africans. (Finkelman, 1998). Even though Atlantic slave trade was essentially extinguished, slaves continued to be traded in Africa and exported to Ar abia. The Berlin Act explained that theywould have abolished slave trade to improve the conditions of their health and well- beingness. The Berlin Act excessively provided that Trading in slaves is forbidden in conformity with the principles of the international law as recognized by the Signatory Powers. (Stock, 2013) Nevertheless, this did not accommodate any comestible for enforcement. Therefore the Berlin Act has an insufficient impact or absolutely no impact on the slave trade in Africa. Although, even with their choice of what to trade, the craft industry boomed which is a positive impact on Europeans only. Other than the slave trade many goods were distributed abroad such as cloth, iron, copper, shells, jewelry, ivory, spices, and many more which had a positive impact on the economy due to many new things being discovered and traded.The economic and political impact unintentionally influenced the social impact of Africa due to the European and Africans coming together. Most Africans did not benefit from interacting with the Europeans. Europeans were discriminative against the Africans because of their dark skin color (Finkelman, 1998), leading to the Africans becoming the slaves of the Europeans in the Americas. The Europeans benefitted from the use of Africans (Stock, 2013), being their slaves because they are receiving labor without having to pay for it. With the coming together of nations there was great tension and racism between the two because of the skin color and many more reasons.In conclusion the Berlin Conference has the greatest political impact during the 19th centuries on the division of Africa by the European Nations. The division of Africa led to slave trade and loss of culture. The Europeans took over Africa and made it their own by having free labor by transporting Africans around the world to work. The Berlin Conference had good intentions by abolishing slave trade but it unintentionally led to many bad things effecting Africans but benefiting the Europeans.

Compare the opening sequences of the film Essay

I have chosen to comp atomic number 18 the chess opening sequence of Hannibal with that of the opening of the classic crime thriller author Dogs. To accurately make comparisons of the cardinal openings it is essential that I study the sound, the use of colour, camera work, lighting text and mise en scene. Not only stating what is there provided in any case why. This has been achieved by scratch line connotating and dennotating each opening. I watched both openings numerous times, both in class and at home. This made it possible for me to decisively analyse and so compare the two openings.The opening sequence of Hannibal pay backs with a black frame and a sound bridge which consists of a conversation between two people, the voices and surfeit of the conversation are unclear but grab the references attention as you need to focus to attempt make out whats going on. there is calming music beingness played, piano music, very soft as not to take our attention away from the voi ces but just to create a subdued atmosphere. From the bottom right hand corner of the screen a small box with an image in it approaches at a slow but steady pace. The camera is revolving around the image.The box gradually begins to enlarge and takes all over from the black frame. The reasoning for this technique is so that the consultation is immediately involved with the scene, rather of the opening scene just being there, a certain amount of suspense and tension is created as the listening wait to see whether their own interpretations are correct. This is an insight into how the rest of the film is going to go. The main themes and plot are not there in black and white instead you, the audience are invited to read between the lines and go along with Agent Clarice and solve the case.The camera then(prenominal) pans across slowly and what unfolds before us is a signifi loafert opening into the storyline. The pace and angle of movement of the camera make it perceivable that the a udience is in the approach pattern of other person entering the room. The sluggishness of the camera gets the audience waiting in anticipation, you are eager to put a face to the two voices that have been heard by means ofout. The two colours immediately evident through the interior and lighting are a chilling blue and a fierce red.These are extremely relevant, for the reason that blue is the colour associated with Starling throughout the film, representing her seclusion in her search for Hannibal. Red is a symbol of Hannibal, conveying his murderous characteristics and his dangerous ways. The interior is of a very regal house, this is symbolical of Hannibal himself because previously it has been seen that thus far disturbed he may be he has to some extent a certain degree of class, in terms of choice of music, arts, food (other than flesh).The two characters are the doctor from the hospital Hannibal was once a resident at and the other a victim of Hannibal, an extremely disfig ured man. This acts as a re- entrance to Hannibal, and what he is capable of inflicting on his victims. The conversation progresses between the two and the audience are then witness to four close ups in succession, two of which are over the shoulder shots, enabling us to view the others reaction to what has been said to them. The choice of close ups allow the audience to get an understanding of both characters through facial nerve expressions, who they are and what role they have to play in the story.The doctor appears as the good character whereas the victim appears as the bitter evil character this can be defined by their characteristics, posture and context of their conversation. The scene develops further, with the conversation taking a more direct approach to what is to be the climax of the scene, the introduction of the mask. There are a string of mid shots which present us with more background on both characters. The doctor is wearing some demeanor of professional nurses un iform and Cardel is wearing a suit fitted to his mangled body, although suggesting that he has a certain amount of wealth and social status.As the conversation continues there are two more close-ups which coincide with important parts of the conversation. An example of this is when the word thousand is spoken. This could be seen as a symbolic message, representing the extent of pain Cardel has be subjected to or the extent of revenge he wishes to inflict on Hannibal. The scene ends with a close up gradually changing into an enlarged extreme close up of the mask which is to be the artefact of the movie. The mask takes up the entire screen before fading away into the pitch blackness of the original opening shot.The fact that there has been a cycle from black through to black could suggest that the story may be similar in that there is no answer instead an encircling cat and mouse saga. From the first scene the editing has been very smooth and gradual, there appears to be no rush to get the audience to the story, maybe implying that the story will come to the audience. The mask fades out again at no great pace and then Hannibal appears in a red font, as if to bring fear to the audience.The scene commencing is of a more complexed nature there are more shots with the editing being more sharp and severe. There are a chain of short shots, no longer than a few seconds which are all related to Hannibal in some form. The technique used is to convey that all the images have been taken from a security camera, recording the events of the town centre of Italy, which is a bustling invariable moving place, no dramatic incidents just people walking through the streets and cars driving through traffic. The shots have been edited to appear faster than real time.This is some other link in with the story line, although there may be no overly dramatic sub-plots there are plenty of twists which will keep the audience alert. Flickered in between these shots, are an image of a bra in. The shot is so sudden that the audience only just have enough time to be taken aback let alone comprehend the significance, the fact that Hannibal later eats a brain. There use of pigeons are a link to the relieve of the lambs when Hannibal describes Clarice as a pigeon and comes in handy when Hannibals face is displayed amongst the pigeons for a few seconds.This technique of suspending time is a method used twice in this scene, the other being when the camera focuses briefly on a man whos appearance is much similar to that of Hannibal, but we are left deepenable whether it is him or not. Either way we are again reintroduced to Hannibal as a physical character rather than just a theme. There are many images of flesh, a representation of cannibalism which is a key theme associated with Hannibal. The shot of the pigs links in with the events later in the film, when the hungry pigs are unleashed to destroy Hannibal.This theme has been carried on from the Hannibal trilogy. Police officers are also used signify the factor of crime and deviance used by both Hannibal and fellow FBI agents of Clarice. The opening scene of Reservoir Dogs has a duration of 7 and half minutes which is exceedingly long for an opening. For a good 6 minutes neither the setting, camera angle nor characters change within the first scene. This makes it a relatively easy opening to analyse although there are many artefacts and themes which are relevant to the rest of the film and must(prenominal) be mentioned.The opening shot is a black frame with a voice over of Mr Pink talking about Madonna. The black frame doesnt last too long and soon we are introduced to the setting which we are to be subjected to for the next 7 minutes. It is a cheap breakfast dinner. Immediately the audience are placed right next to the main table. It is obvious that the dinner is cheap because of the interior the curtains have a corny appearance, the pictures on the wall fancy inexpensive the lighting is very f alse and the condiments on the table are plastic.The camera remains the same throughout, endlessly circling, bad the appearance of a timid little boy wandering around the table always focusing on whoever is speaking or making a gesture of importance, rarely giving us a clean shot of their faces but just enough to introduce the audience to the principle characters. The gangsters light cigarettes and drink coffee, the conversation diverges into that of the origins of Madonnas song Like a virgin and a few other tedious subject come into play.All the way through we are minded(p) extensive time to learn about the 8 men all sitting around the table. All the men bar one are spiffed up up in the stereotypical gangster outfit, a black suit, white shirt and black tie. This is part of mise en scene, introducing us to the concept of a clustering of gangsters all together for a reason. Their appearance however stereotypical is very simplistic and that could be what they are expecting of the ir proposed holdup, this later comes out as irony because the heist is far from simple.There is one man who is not in a suit and that is Nice Guy Eddie he is though in another form of stereotypical gangster attire. He is wearing a blue shell suit, opened up enough to show his big gold necklace on direct of his hairy chest. This makes him out to be somebody of importance, maybe the boss. The atmosphere is very smoky, which is a sharp contrast on top of the easily wipeable tables and usable napkins, this could again be a representation of their plans becoming clouded by unforeseen circumstances.After taking in what is before us the audience begin to want reasoning for why eight gangsters are all together in such a cheap establishment, and it is apparent that they want to be inconspicuous, keep down any unwanted attention from the authorities. This builds up a sense of anticipation, there is now a distinct impression that violence is going to rain. There is another key shot that im plies a sense of violence and that is when Joe steps up to pay the bill, the camera pans up and we are given a glimpse of his gun. This is the first sign of possible bloodshed, this builds on the previous sense of anticipation.

Basic Accounting Equation

The basic report equation upon which the final accounts are develop encompasses the following Assets minus Liabilities = Ownership Interest The Balance Sheet is the key financial report that portrays the explanation equation, which will be utilized to compute the accounting equation for the companies at hand. accountancy Equation in McDonalds Annual Report (2007) Assets Property, plant and equipment $20,984. 70 jillion Current Assets $ 3,581. 90 million Other Assets $ 4,825. 10 million Total Assets $29,391. 70 million Liabilities Non-Current Liabilities (note 1) $ 9,613.40 million Current Liabilities $ 4,498. 50 million Total Liabilities $14,111. 90 million Ownership Interest $15,279. 80 million denounce ownership interest is represented by total shareholders equity in the Balance Sheet. Note 1 Computation of Non-Current Liabilities Long-Term Debt $7,310. 0 million Other Long-Term Liabilities $1,342. 5 million Deferred Taxation $ 960. 9 million Non-Current Liabilities $9,613. 4 million Accounting Equation in Triarc Companies Incorporation (2007) Assets Non-Current Assets $1,284,313,000 Current Assets $ 170,254,000Total Assets $1,454,567,000 Liabilities Non-Current Liabilities (see note 2) $ 798,530,000 Current Liabilities $ 207,163,000 Total Liabilities $1,005,693,000 Ownership Interest $448,874,000 Note ownership interest is represented by total stockholders equity in the Balance Sheet. Note 2 Computation of Non-Current Liabilities Long-Term Debt $711,531,000 Deferred Income $ 10,861,000 Minority interest in consolidated subsidiaries $ 958,000 Other Liabilities $ 75,180,000 Non-Current Liabilities $798,530,000Under both organisations the same accounting equation is utilised and the same comp wizardnts taken. This uniformity is important in accounting in order to see to it comparability. In addition with the aid of such accounting equation a uniform structure is give to the Balance Sheet, which is an important ordinary for pertinent stakeholders to as sess the financial position and stability of the organization. As one bottom of the inning note the assets section is classified among current and non-current assets, while the liabilities are divided between current and non-current liabilities.The subtraction between the two will results in the ownership interest. This basically comprises the equity detonating device of the company together with capital and revenue/capital reserves. Such features are present both for McDonalds Corporation and Triarc Companies Incorporation. In addition such features will also be present in the mass of limited liability companies set across the globe. The Balance Sheet is the main medium that one can utilize to identify the assets, liabilities and ownership interest of the companies.The additional notes in the financial statements serve as degree specification on certain assets and liability elements. However, the accounting equation being generic in its genius does not necessitate that one en ters into such details. In this respect the Balance Sheet was the main medium utilised to put in practice the accounting equation for McDonalds Corporation and Triarc Companies Incorporation. Reference Weetman P. (2003). monetary and Management Accounting. Third Edition. New York Prentice Hall.

An Overview of Four Government Agency Websites Essay

The FNS website is dedicated to providing entropy regarding the distribution and availability of forage passim the United States. In relation to this, the site also contains data on nutrition, and strong it is maintained crossways different regions and population groups. Statistical development on child nutrition, nutrient distribution, as well as food security are all made admission feeible to the public furthermore, statistical data on FNS programs, such as those on school meals and disaster relief, are available as well (FNS, 2010).In addition to such, other parts of the website also provide useful information. For example, accomplished studies and articles on issues in food and nutrition are also maintained in the reference section of the site. Similar to the website of other giving medication agencies, the FNS website also contains instruction of how to apply for grants as well as jobs within the agency. Without doubt, for gaining insights on topics related to food and nutrition, and in the pursuit of remaining updated regarding the trends regarding such matters, the FNS website is a suitable option.Environmental trade protection Agency (EPA) At present, environmental issues are evidently among the to the highest degree discussed topics throughout the world. The EPA website provides its visitors information regarding various aspects of the environment particularly in the context of the United States. In this sense, not only does the site present statistical information on air quality according to region, but similar data regarding harmful emissions are also provided interestingly, statistics on toxic releases are also made accessible to the general public (EPA, 2010).Also, aside from having news features closely the environment, which of course encompasses the recent oil press release incident, supplementary information on how to maintain a answerable lifestyle for preserving and enhancing the natural environment are also featured in the site . In relation to such, it is apparent that the EPA website designed in a manner that even younger audiences may benefit from its features.Nonetheless, despite be approachable by a wide range of audiences, it is undeniable that experts and researchers would benefit from the abundance of updated statistical information which may be found on the EPA website. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) The FAA, as its name implies, is primarily concerns with safety in the field of aviation. In this sense though, the issues covered by the FAA ranges from aircraft safety to pilot competency.FAAs website offers a unnumberable of information readily accessible by any visitor. For one, it provides means to locate FAA offices and headquarter throughout various locations in the United States in addition, a range of general as well as in-depth discussions pertaining to aircraft safety, traffic, policies, and even training are all available (FAA, 2010). Of course, given such a massive range of to pics being assessed by the FAA, it is logical to assume that the types of statistical information correspond to such.In particular, statistical information on accidents, traffic, and consumer related aspects such as sales could be accessed through the FAA website interestingly, statistical information on delays as well as pilot test results have been made available as well (FAA, 2010). Thus, it may be said, that the amount of statistical information on the FAA website, presents it as among the government agencies with the most abundant and detailed statistical information available. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) Economics, in order to be understood at a functional level, of course entails the use and analysis of statistical information.Hence, the BEA provides concerned individuals with access to updated statistical information of the United States economy. Specifically, not only does the BEA website contain data regarding the local economy and the precise facets of the economy but it also provides information regarding international accounts as well among some of the easily identifiable examples of statistical information shown on the BEA website are as follows real GDP, personal income, international trade, and international legal proceeding (BEA, 2010).Of course, aside from such, the website still contains less technical information such as news updates. For one, the oil spill incident as well as its implications for the United States economy is presented as one of the news highlights (BEA, 2010). another(prenominal) related links containing business surveys, customer guides, research applications, and job openings are also available. Indeed, the BEA website contains a myriad of useful information, ranging from practical to the most technical, maintaining the economic awareness of the population.References Bureau of Economic Analysis. (2010). BEA Home Page. Retrieved from http//www. bea. gov/. Environmental Protection Agency. (2010). Learn the Issues. Retrieved from http//www. epa. gov/epahome/learn. htm. Federal Aviation Administration. (2010). FAA Home Page. Retrieved from http//www. faa. gov/. Food and Nutrition Service. (2010). Data and Statistics. Retrieved from http//www. fns. usda. gov/fns/data. htm.

Counselling Psychology Essay

During the history of psychological science and exp iodinent a wide meander of attitudes and approaches fool been developed in regularise to provide souls with the ability to explore his or her inner valet through varied strategies and modes of interaction. The aim was to increase the direct of aw atomic number 18(predicate)ness as well as the level of motivation and departs (Sarnoff, 1960). harmonize to Stefflre & Burks (1979), Counselling doesnt just occur betwixt two people, it denotes a nonrecr feed inional affinity between a trained exponent and a leaf node. This relationship is usually person-to-person, although it whitethorn somemultiplication involve more than two people, it likewise focuses upon the stimulation of personal organic evolution in order to maximize personal and social effectiveness and to fo occupyall psychologically crippling disabilities (p.14). For this assignment the Psychoanalytic suppositious approach to Counselling will be examined, alo ng with its theorist Sigmund Freud and the therapeutic techniques associated with this theoretical approach. Before iodine can begin to explore techniques of analysis, it is important to briefly review Freuds psychoanalytic theory, the developmental record and his faces of psychological development.Psychoanalytic theory and its practice originated in the late nineteenth century in the live on of Sigmund Freud. According to Sarnoff (1960), psychoanalytic theory is considered to be the historical foundation of therapy. It describes the mechanisms of self defence which serve to foster the individual against external and internal threat it too offers a distinctive way of thinking nigh the human mind and how it responds to psychological distress (p. 251). This theory has evolved into a complex, multifaceted and internally fractured body of experience situated at the interface between the human and natural sciences, clinical and discuss practice and faculty member theory. Th erefore the term psychoanalysis refers to both Freuds original attempt at providing a broad theory of the mind and also the associated treatment (Wachtel & Messer, 1997, p.39-42). Freud viewed human nature as dynamic, that is, he believed in the miscellanea and exchange of energy within the personality.These dynamic concepts consist of instincts, libido, cathexis, anticathexis and anxiety and argon related to the way ace distri preciselyes psychic energy (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). In attempting to account for wherefore human beings behave as they do, Freud invented the topographic and geomorphologic models of personality. The topographical model or iceberg of the mind was intended to help analysts understand how patients repress wishes, fantasies, and thoughts. In the topographical model, the mind is divided into conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind(p)(p)(p) systems (passer-by & Smith, 2007, p.443-445). The conscious system includes all that we argon basically awake(predicate) of in our minds. The preconscious includes real(a) that we atomic number 18 cap commensurate of becoming aware of, but do not take on to be aware of currently. According to Freud (as cited in Passer & Smith, 2007, p.444), the metaphor of the psyche is like an iceberg was proposed. alike(p) an actual iceberg only the upper ten percent of it is visible or conscious and the rest is submerged and unseen below the waters surface. So likewise, most human behaviour results from unconscious motivation, hence the unconscious system includes material that we have defensively removed from our awareness by centre of repression and other defence mechanisms. So when unconscious materials attempt to enter the conscious level, a censor lock (repression) pushes it back or lets it through in a disguised form (Ewen, 1992). As a result, focuss show to move unconscious material to the preconscious and then to the conscious mind, to increase the patients self-awareness. With thi s model Freud complete that their was certain explanatory limitations, such(prenominal) as the models inability to account for certain forms of psychiatry and as a result developed an alternative that explained normal and abnormal personality development.This alternative is cognise as the structural model (Brammer, Shostrum & Abrego, 1989). According to Freud (as cited in Gladding, 2000, p.187-188), the structural model for psychoanalysis consists of three psychic structures the id, ego and superego, which differ in terms of power and influence. These parts symbolise the polar aspects of a persons personality. The id and superego are confined to the unconscious and the ego operates mainly in the conscious but also interacts with the preconscious and unconscious of the topographical model. The id which develops within the next three years of an individuals life is the ancestry of nonpareils motivation, and includes sexual and aggressive drives. Sigmund Freuds theory believed th at both the sexual and aggressive drives are powerful determinants of why people act as they do it involves an analysis of the root cause or causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious minds relation to it.This id demands the satisfaction of the antisocial instincts and obeys an inexorable sport principle. The id is viewed as not having all logic, values or ethics, for proto oddball the id wants whatever feels good at a certain beat (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). Therefore Freud saw that it was urgent to view the pleasure principle and he postulated that in that location must be a super-ego to control the id. The ego can be viewed as the decision lickr of personality it consists of a group of mechanisms such as reality-testing, judgment and impulse control. It incorporates these techniques so it is able to control the demands of the id and of other instincts, becoming aware of stimuli, and serving as a link between the id and the externa l instauration (Pervin, Cerv unrivalled & John, 2005). As an individuals ego develops so does the perception of reality and a wider view beyond, the pleasures of prevail overive gratification, is attained. Therefore the pleasure principle that was developed by Freud was replaced by the reality principle (Garcia, 1995).As describe by the psychoanalytic theory, the psychological conflict that the ego faces, in respect to dealing with the demands of the superego and the id, is an intrinsic and pervasive part of human experience. For example, if an individual is under pressure and the balance is tipped too far towards one element, thus creating excessive anxiety, the ego is forced to take extreme measures to relieve the pressure, by incorporating what is know as defence mechanisms (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.444-445). These principle defences consists of repression, projection, reaction formation, displacement, regression, rationalization, denial and identification, these are used to de fend the ego and are know in therapy as denial or repression. Therefore the way in which a person characteristically resolves the instant gratification versus longer-term reward dilemma, in many ways comes to reflect on their character (Kleep, 2008). In differentiate to the id is the superego, which is developed at around age five.It is the internalized representation of the traditional values, ideas and moral standards of society and strives for nonpareil (Pervin et al., 2005). Counsellors who use the structural model commonly focus on helping patients handle conflicts that occur between these three mental agencies by assessing the level of functioning of the clients id, ego, and superego, the specific areas of weakness and dominance in each (Garcia, 1995). For example, counsellors usually diagnose a patient as psychotic if his or her ego suffers a severe impairment in reality-testing. Freud believed that human social and personality development occurs through his psychoanalytic theory of development. This theory consists of five stages the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. These are characterized by a dominant mode of achieving libidinal pleasure and by specific development tasks. An individuals personality according to Freud has been shaped by the age of five and he believes this time is the most critical for an individual (Hergenhahn & Olson).During these years if an individual is able to successfully negotiate these stages, then healthy personality develops. and, if through over-gratification or under-gratification, conflicts are not settle adequately specific traits and characters develop and continue through to adulthood. Therefore, Freud believed that the three early stages of development often brought individuals to guidance because there were not properly resolved (Pervin et al., 2005). According to Gladding (2000),Counsellors who work psychoanalytically should understand at which stage a client is functioning because the stages are dir ectly linked to the plan of treatment (p.189). Children experience conflicts in different stages of development. In each stage, conflict centers on a different theme. In Freuds oral sensory stage, which occurs from birth to one year, conflict at this point centers on feeding. Children in this stage want to eat things that the Ego tells them is not good for them.Freud believed that some individuals do not pass this stage successfully and remained restricted and overly optimistic. Such people also find it hard to make intimate friends with others and fear red which may be accompanied by greed (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.443-445). Individuals who are considered to have an oral personality are usually narcissistic which means according to the DSM IV-TR enduring patterns of inner experience and behaviour that are sufficiently rigid and deep-seated to bring a person into repeated conflicts with his or her social and occupational environs (Barlow & Durand, 2005, p.445). In other words the individual is characterized by an inflated sense of self- sizeableness, need for admiration, extreme self-involvement, and neglect of empathy for others. However, this disorder is only diagnosed when these behaviours become persistent and very disabling or distressing (Barlow & Durand, 2005). In the second base stage which is cognise as the anal stage and occurs in the second year of life, conflict centers on bowel training. In advocate this stage involves two phases, one is an aggressive phase.This allows the client to share reading that was stored up. The other phase is the retentive phase, where clients may hold on to their negative beliefs and attitudes until they are ready to sprain them. The reason for such behavior by clients is because they may find some pleasure in resisting and withhold this information (Garcia, 1995). The controversial Oedipal complex for boys or Electra complex for girls occurs in the phallic stage and happens around three to five years. This sta ge is seen by counselors as the phase of initiation and transition. According to Garcia (1995), Counselors may act as initiators by providing appropriately challenging experiences within the scope of each individuals potential for control (p.499). Freud proposed children at this stage compete with the same sex kick upstairs for the affection of the opposite sex parent for example boys desire to have their mother but are prevented by the presence of their father (see extension 1).Fear of punishment forces repression of such desires and consequently the superego is developed. To unsuccessfully go through this stage is believed to be associated with psychoneurotic compulsive behaviours (Passer & Smith, 2007, p.446-447). Psychoanalysts pointed out some(prenominal) reasons why the Oedipal complex seem unreal to individuals. Firstly, individuals are unable to travail their own Oedipal complex when they were children and what was comprehended was energetically repressed almost as soo n as individuals became aware of it. Secondly, individuals gradually accept their cultures perception for their sexual and aggressive life (Klepp, 2008). In the Caribbean for example boys have more throw indom than girls and they nab that they must become like their father, who is stereotypically aggressive, ambitious, powerful, and in direct contrast to his mother, who is stereotypically passive, obedient and nurturing and according to societal norms girls should also possess such traits. Therefore because of societal perspectives on an individuals life, it is considered as the norm and is accepted for a man to possess more than one female.However it is unorthodox and frowned upon for females to behave in this manner. The fourth stage which is known as the Latency occurs from age sixer years until puberty. In this stage sexual instincts are repressed and superego is fully developed. At this time clients may be initiating and cultivating new and transitional alliances outside of the helping relationship (Garcia, 1995). The fifth and last stage which is known as the genital stage begins with puberty and continues for the rest of adult life. Mature sexuality is the theme of this stage. This stage is also known as the definitive phase of the counseling process and marks the end of the counseling process and the beginning of its outcome which would be demonstrated over time (Garcia, 1995). Freud suggested strongly that personality was essentially established when the Oedipus and Electra complexes were successfully resolved (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007, p.40-43).Patients usually get in contact with a psychoanalytic counsellor when defences have failed and anxiety has developed. Therefore, the primary goal of advocate, within a psychoanalytic frame of reference, is to make the unconscious conscious. By doing so any material that is repressed is brought to the conscious level and can be dealt with (Wachtek & Messer, 1997). According to Freud (as cited in, Pervin, Ce rvone & John, 2005, p. 74-82), unhealthy individuals are unaware of the many factors that cause their behaviour and emotions and as a result these unconscious factors have the potential to produce unhappiness, which in turn is expressed through a score of decided symptoms, including disturbing personality traits, difficulty in relating to others and disturbances in self-esteem or general disposition.The counsellor employs a variety of techniques to tap into a patients unconscious such as free association, conceive of analysis, analysis of transference, analysis of rampart and reckonation. All these methods have the long-term goal of strengthening the ego (Gladding, 2000, p.192-194). kick association is a method that replaced hypnosis in Freuds therapy. It consists of a patient speaking about any subject matter one basically abdicates his or her customary conscious control over ones behaviour and gives free verbal expression to every thought, feeling or impulse of which one bec omes aware. Conclusions are then based on what was said and by doing this the counsellor is hoping that the client will abandon all normal forms of censoring, or editing their thoughts (Rieber, 2006).An example of the use of free association is lying on a couch, in dim light and in a peaceful room, the patient produces the following free association I am thinking of the fluffy clouds I seem to see with my very eyes. They are white and pearly. The sky is full of clouds but a few azure patches can politic be seen here and there (Ewen, 1992, p.57). Colby (1960) pointed out that, this technique often leads to some recollection of ult experiences and at times a release of intense feelings such as catharsis that have been blocked but opposite may occur during free association (p.54-58).. This means that the patient is unable to recall traumatic past events. Therefore, one task of the counsellor would be to overcome resistance. Blocking or disruptions in associations serve as cues to an xiety arousing material. According to Grnbaum (1986), free association is not a valid method of accessing the patients repressed memories because there is no way of ensuring that the analyst is capable of distinguishing between the patients actual memories and imagined memories constructed due to the influence of the analysts leading questions (p. 226).Another type of technique that is related to free association is transference. Pervin et al., (2005) stated that, transference refers to a patients development of attitudes towards the counsellor based on attitudes held by that patient toward earlier agnate figures (p.129). In other words it is the clients unconscious shifting to the counsellor of feelings and fantasies that are reactions to authoritative others in the patients past and present (Stefflre & Burks, 1979). This process is encouraged by the client reclining vulnerably on a couch, with the counsellor out of sight and remaining a blank slate as much as realistic. At this time a parent child relationship is developed among client and counsellor and therefore transfers the patients old emotions with his or her actual parents unto the counsellor. This makes for an extremely difficult maculation in which the counsellor has a huge amount of influence, which is necessary but requires care and restraint (Sue & Sue, 2007).Freud ab initio believed transference was a hurdle in counselling. However, he eventually recognized that transference is a general phenomenon and also occurs outside of the counselling session. But in order for the counselling section to produce change the transference relationship must be work through. Work through occurs after transference in the case of most learning, the appreciations gained through psychoanalytic counselling must be practiced to integrate them in ones life. It other words it allows the client to understand the influence of the past on his or her present situation, to accept it emotionally as well as intellectual ly, and to use the new understanding to make changes in present life. By doing this the client will also learn to avoid repressing the material (Schaeffer, 1998 Ewen, 1992). Ewen (1992) pointed out, several disadvantages to the transference technique. Firstly, this technique can not be effectively applied to group counselling.Secondly, it is possible for the transference to become extremely negative as when powerful distrust or obstinacy is displaced from a castrating parent to counsellor and the counsellor must be very careful not to aggravate deserve love or hate which would give the client a valid excuse for refusing to recognise and learn from the transference technique (p.59). Warwar & Greenberg (2000) discussed recent changes in psychoanalytic theory. Rather than presenting a problem, countertransference currently is considered to be a fundamental, useful component of the psychoanalytic counselling process, because it provides the counsellor with useful information about the counselling relationship (p.571-600). Countertransference occurs when the counsellor begins to project his or her own unresolved conflicts unto the client.While transference of the clients conflicts unto the counsellor is considered a healthy and normal part of psychoanalytic counselling, the counsellors job is to remain inert as not to breech any of the ethical codes of counselling (Rosenberger & Hayes, 2002). Individuals are seen as being incite by their past and present relationships, rather than by biological urges when this technique is in use, therefore the counselling relationship is seen as real. Thus clients behaviour is not seen primarily as transference, but as responses in a current relationship. In addition, change is understood to be the result of the structural emotional experience of the counselling relationship, rather than the result of insight. This new emphasis on the reality and importance of this type of relationship appears to be integrated into other appro aches to counselling as well (Sue & Sue, 2007). Some criticisms of countertransference are that it can be damaging if not properly managed.With proper monitoring, however, some sources show that counter-transference can institute an important role. Counsellors are encouraged to pay close attention to their feelings in respect to this technique, and to seek ally review and supervisory guidance as needed. Rather than eliminating counter-transference altogether, the goal is to use those feelings productively rather than harmfully (Schaeffer, 1998). The basic method of psychoanalysis is interpretation. Brammer, Shostrum & Abrego (1989) states, interpretation is an attempt by the counsellor to impart meaning to the client. recitation means presenting the client with a hypothesis about relationships or meanings among his or her behaviours (p.175). In psychoanalytic counselling the counsellor is silent as much as possible, in order to encourage the patients free association and to inte rpret resistances and repressions that the client has not yet understood, but is capable of tolerating and incorporating, so as to better understand the unconscious conflicts that are interfering with daily functioning, such as phobias and depression (Clark, 1995).Interpretations by the counsellor appear to be the critical variable in counselling success, along with client insight about underlying motivations, in order to achieve client goals. Therefore the goal of interpretation is to modify the ego to assimilate new material and to speed up the process of uncovering further unconscious materials (Wachtel & Messer, 1997). According to Clark (1995) Interpretation was rejected by critics as a valid technique because, it was perceived as undermining the counsellors relationship, minimizing or subverting client responsibility and restricting the counselling process to an intellectual endeavour (p.486). Freud (as cited in Passer & Smith, 2007, p.170-172) saw fantasys as the major sou rce of insight into the unconscious and as very important. Dreams are seen as the royal road to the unconscious and are not literal in nature but symbolic. Dreams also consist of two levels of content the latent and manifest.Dream Analysis is a very imperfect science, as there are many levels of distortion between the patients unconscious and the counsellors interpretation, bearing in mind, according to Freud, dreams are interpreted in terms of phallic meanings (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2007). For example it is astonish how many ordinary items can be interpreted as being a penis such as chair legs or a vagina such as purses. Each fragment of a dream leads quickly to the disclosure of unconscious memories and fantasies and then unto associations of other topics. Another technique that is involved in the psychoanalytic process of counselling is Analysis of resistance.Although a client may feel the need to change and rightfully desire help for themselves through the counsellor many things can enter the picture to alter this change these things are referred to as resistance. Resistance refers to any idea, attitude, feelings or action which can be conscious or unconscious that fosters the status quo and gets in the way of change. For example missed or being late for appointments, digressive on about the economy or politics, any type of distraction that seems to keep the client from in truth focusing on the real issues is considered resistance (Sue & Sue, 2007,p.98). According to Gladding a counsellors analysis of resistance can assist clients gain insight to their situation and other behaviours (p.193). Psychoanalytic theory has been applied to counselling in terms of the assessment of personality. This theory is the underlining factor of the performance based or projective tests used in psychoanalytic counselling. These assessments assist counsellors in the analysis of individuals unconscious thoughts, motives, feelings, conflicts and repressed problems from early c hildhood.These types of test generally have an unstructured response format, meaning that respondents are allowed to respond as much or as small(a) as they like (free association) to a particular test stimulus, which is normally ambiguous (Pervin et al., 2005). The most common type of test used in this area includes the Rorschach Inkblot test. This test is a method used in psychological evaluation it can be administered to children as young as three, adolescents and adults. This assessment tries to probe the unconscious minds of clients. The counsellor will show the subject a series of ten irregular but stellate inkblots and ask the client to identify the inkblot. As the patient is examining the inkblots the counsellor writes down everything the patient says or does, no matter how trivial the subjects responses.These responses are then analysed in various ways noting not only what was said but the time taken to respond and which aspect of the drawings was focused on. At this time if a client consistently sees the images as threatening and frightening the counsellor might infer that the subject may be suffering from paranoia. Major criticisms of this test include a lack or reliableness and validity. Individuals who benefit the most from psychoanalytic counselling are those middle aged clients who are searching for a meaning to life (Pervin et al., 2005). The principal concepts of psychoanalytic counselling can be grouped as structural, dynamic, and developmental concepts. This theory is a method for learning about the mind and insights into whatever the human mind produces. It is a way of understanding the processes of everyday mental functioning and the stages of development (Sue & Sue, 2007). Freuds approach is subject to several criticisms.Firstly, it is too time consuming, expensive and generally ineffective to those who seek help from a psychoanalytic counsellor who has less disruptive developmental or situational problems and disorders. Secondly, techni ques involved in psychoanalysis, such as Freuds ideas on the interpretation of dreams and the role of free association, have been criticized. For instance, one counsellor may observe one phenomenon and interpret it one way, whereas another counsellor will observe the same phenomenon and interpret it in a tout ensemble different way that is contradictory to the first psychoanalysts interpretation (Stefflre & Burks, 1979). Despite the weaknesses of psychoanalysis, there are many strengths of the theory that are extremely significant.It offers an empathetic and non-judgemental environment where the client can feel adept in revealing feelings or actions that have led to stress or tension in his or her life. It also lends itself to empirical studies and provides a theoretical base support for a number of diagnostic tests (Gladding, 2000, p.194-195).Therefore, the psychoanalysis is a theory that should not be disregarded. Although it was developed a long time ago it is still applicable and an effective method of treating mental disorders such as paranoia, schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive reactions in todays societies. In addition, a good theory, according to many philosophers of science, is falsifiable, able to be generalized, leads to the development of new psychological theories and hypotheses. Psychoanalysis meets many of these criteria (Klepp, 2008).ReferencesBarlow,D., & Durand, V. (2005). 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